Leviticus 11:1-8 · Bible study
Leviticus 11:1-8 Commentary: Dietary Laws & Shared Authority
Hebrew · 11 what the commentators say
Meaning in one sentence
Why does God address both Moses and Aaron together? This study explores the purpose of dietary distinctions and the joint commission in Leviticus 11:1-8.
Research Summary
- Meaning: God instructs Israel which land animals may be eaten, using two criteria (divided hoof and rumination), and names four species that fail the test.
- Key words: “Cud” (H1625 gerah), “parteth the hoof” (H6536 paras, to divide), “unclean” (H2931 tame, ritually impure).
- Main debate: Whether the dietary laws served primarily as health regulations, identity markers, or pedagogical symbols (Calvin notes allegorical readings).
- Theological theme: Holiness is comprehensive; God claims authority over what enters the body and what Israel touches.
- Best use: Teaching how the Old Testament law disciplined Israel to reflect God's holiness in daily practice, and as background for understanding New Testament freedom in Christ.
Translation Comparison
BSB Berean Standard Bible 2020
1The LORD spoke again to Moses and Aaron, telling them,
2“Say to the Israelites, ‘Of all the beasts of the earth, these ones you may eat:
3You may eat any animal that has a split hoof completely divided and that chews the cud.
4But of those that only chew the cud or only have a divided hoof, you are not to eat the following: The camel, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is unclean for you.
5The rock badger, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is unclean for you.
6The rabbit, though it chews the cud, does not have a divided hoof; it is unclean for you.
7And the pig, though it has a split hoof completely divided, does not chew the cud; it is unclean for you.
8You must not eat their meat or touch their carcasses; they are unclean for you.
WEB World English Bible 2000
1Yahweh spoke to Moses and to Aaron, saying to them,
2“Speak to the children of Israel, saying, ‘These are the living things which you may eat among all the animals that are on the earth.
3Whatever parts the hoof, and is cloven-footed, and chews the cud among the animals, that you may eat.
4“‘Nevertheless these you shall not eat of those that chew the cud, or of those who part the hoof: the camel, because it chews the cud but doesn’t have a parted hoof, is unclean to you.
5The hyrax, because it chews the cud but doesn’t have a parted hoof, is unclean to you.
6The hare, because it chews the cud but doesn’t have a parted hoof, is unclean to you.
7The pig, because it has a split hoof, and is cloven-footed, but doesn’t chew the cud, is unclean to you.
8You shall not eat their meat. You shall not touch their carcasses. They are unclean to you.
KJV King James Version 1769
1And the Lord spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying unto them,
2Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, These are the beasts which ye shall eat among all the beasts that are on the earth.
3Whatsoever parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, and cheweth the cud, among the beasts, that shall ye eat.
4Nevertheless these shall ye not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the hoof: as the camel, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.
5And the coney, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.
6And the hare, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.
7And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be clovenfooted, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean to you.
8Of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their carcase shall ye not touch; they are unclean to you.
ASV American Standard Version 1901
1And Jehovah spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying unto them,
2Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, These are the living things which ye may eat among all the beasts that are on the earth.
3Whatsoever parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, and cheweth the cud, among the beasts, that may ye eat.
4Nevertheless these shall ye not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that part the hoof: the camel, because he cheweth the cud but parteth not the hoof, he is unclean unto you.
5And the coney, because he cheweth the cud but parteth not the hoof, he is unclean unto you.
6And the hare, because she cheweth the cud but parteth not the hoof, she is unclean unto you.
7And the swine, because he parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, but cheweth not the cud, he is unclean unto you.
8Of their flesh ye shall not eat, and their carcasses ye shall not touch; they are unclean unto you.
YLT Young's Literal Translation 1898
1And Jehovah speaketh unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying unto them,
2`Speak unto the sons of Israel, saying, This is the beast which ye do eat out of all the beasts which are on the earth:
3any dividing a hoof, and cleaving the cleft of the hoofs, bringing up the cud, among the beasts, it ye do eat.
4`Only, this ye do not eat--of those bringing up the cud, and of those dividing the hoof--the camel, though it is bringing up the cud, yet the hoof not dividing--it is unclean to you;
5and the rabbit, though it is bringing up the cud, yet the hoof it divideth not--unclean it is to you;
6and the hare, though it is bringing up the cud, yet the hoof hath not divided--unclean it is to you;
7and the sow, though it is dividing the hoof, and cleaving the cleft of the hoof, yet the cud it bringeth not up--unclean it is to you.
8`Of their flesh ye do not eat, and against their carcase ye do not come--unclean they are to you.
Darby Darby Bible 1890
1And Jehovah spoke to Moses and to Aaron, saying to them,
2Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, These are the animals which ye shall eat of all the beasts which are on the earth.
3Whatever hath cloven hoofs, and feet quite split open, and cheweth the cud, among the beasts — that shall ye eat.
4Only these shall ye not eat of those that chew the cud, or of those with cloven hoofs: the camel, for it cheweth the cud, but hath not cloven hoofs — it shall be unclean unto you;
5and the rock-badger, for it cheweth the cud, but hath not cloven hoofs — it shall be unclean unto you;
6and the hare, for it cheweth the cud, but hath not cloven hoofs — it shall be unclean unto you;
7and the swine, for it hath cloven hoofs, and feet quite split open, but it cheweth not the cud — it shall be unclean unto you.
8Of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their carcase shall ye not touch: they shall be unclean unto you.
Douay-Rheims Douay-Rheims Bible 1899
1And the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying:
2Say to the children of Israel: These are the animals which you are to eat of all the living things of the earth.
3Whatsoever hath the hoof divided, and cheweth the cud among the beasts, you shall eat.
4But whatsoever cheweth indeed the cud, and hath a hoof, but divideth it not, as the camel, and others: that you shall not eat, but shall reckon it among the unclean.
5The cherogrillus which cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof, is unclean.
6The hare also: for that too cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof.
7And the swine, which, though it divideth the hoof, cheweth not the cud.
8The flesh of these you shall not eat, nor shall you touch their carcasses, because they are unclean to you.
Verse in Context
Original Language (Biblical Hebrew)
Old Testament · Biblical Hebrew · Leviticus 11:1
Source: STEPBible TAGNT/TEHB (CC-BY 4.0). Click or tap a morphology code to see the full parsing.
Scholars' Consensus
Commentators agree that God addresses both Moses and Aaron together to highlight that the dietary laws concern both civil and religious leadership. Barnes notes that Aaron, as high priest, is treated as co-ordinate with the legislator in matters of purity (compare Lev 13:1; 15:1). Wesley adds that the priest was to direct the people on what was allowed or forbidden, while the magistrate was to enforce the directions. Ellicott suggests that after the rebuke in ch. 10, this joint communication restores Aaron's authority and underscores his role in teaching the laws of clean and unclean (Lev 10:10-11). The chapter itself provides two marks for clean land animals: a completely divided hoof and chewing the cud. Four animals that possess only one mark are named as unclean: the camel, the coney (hyrax), the hare, and the pig. The law closes with a prohibition against eating their meat or touching their carcasses, showing that uncleanness carried consequences for contact as well as consumption.
How settled is the interpretation?
Interpretive difficulty: Medium
Main views:
- Sanitary motive: Wesley and JFB argue that certain animals cause disease in hot climates, so God protected Israel's health.
- Separation from idolatry: Cambridge Bible and others note that pigs were used in Canaanite and Egyptian cults; prohibition kept Israel from adopting pagan practices.
- Symbolic pedagogy: Calvin and many church fathers read the divided hoof and rumination as symbols of discernment and meditation on God's word.
- Divine decree without known reason: Rashi and some Reformed theologians hold that these are commands to be obeyed simply because God gave them.
What is clear: God commanded Israel to avoid eating certain animals, and these laws marked Israel as His holy people, distinguishing them from other nations.
What Scholars Agree and Debate
| Topic | Agreed | Debated |
|---|---|---|
| Joint address to Moses and Aaron | Both leaders receive the revelation because the law involves civil enforcement and priestly instruction. | Some emphasize Aaron's restoration after ch. 10; others focus on the normal partnership of prophet and priest in teaching Torah. |
| The identity of the coney and hare | The Hebrew terms <em>shaphan</em> (rock badger/hyrax) and <em>arnebeth</em> (hare) refer to small mammals that appear to ruminate but do not have true cloven hooves. | Whether these animals actually chew the cud in a biological sense. Commentators often note they move their jaws in a ruminant-like motion but do not have the same digestive system. |
| Purpose of the dietary laws | They set Israel apart as a holy nation and teach dependence on God's word. | Health reasons (Wesley, JFB) vs. separation from pagan practices (Cambridge Bible) vs. symbolic pedagogy (Calvin's 'internal purity' reading). Most commentators combine multiple purposes. |
| Applicability for Christians | The ceremonial distinctions are fulfilled in Christ, as confirmed by Acts 10 and Mark 7. | Catholics and Orthodox maintain some fasting rules from tradition; Protestants generally see these laws as abrogated; some Messianic Jews observe the distinctions as still valid for Jewish believers. |
Historical & Cultural Context
Leviticus 11 sits within the larger legal corpus given at Sinai as Israel prepared to become a distinct nation in covenant with Yahweh. The dietary rules form part of a holiness code that set Israel apart from surrounding peoples. By regulating what could be eaten, God made everyday meals a test of obedience and a visible marker of identity.
The two criteria, divided hoof and rumination, combined to produce a list of clean animals (ox, sheep, goat, deer, and gazelle, as listed in Deut 14:4-5). The four forbidden animals cited in vv.4-7 each fail one test. The camel's hoof is divided only above, not completely; the hyrax and hare appear to chew the cud but do not have a true divided hoof; the pig has a split hoof but does not ruminate. Several commentators note that these animals were also associated with pagan worship or unhealthy climates. Clarke points out that the pig was sacred to Venus in Greco-Roman culture; Jamieson-Fausset-Brown observes that in hot climates pork can produce skin diseases. While these secondary reasons are debated, the primary purpose was to train Israel in holiness and separation from other nations (Matthew Henry).
Verses 1-8 address only land quadrupeds; the rest of the chapter extends the principle to fish, birds, and creeping things. The two-part structure, permitted first, then specific exceptions, appears throughout. The law assumes knowledge of clean animals from earlier tradition (Noah in Gen 7:2), as Calvin notes, and here God formalises it with clear signs.
Textual Notes
The consulted commentaries note no significant textual variants for Leviticus 11:1-8. The Hebrew text is well preserved across manuscripts. Minor spelling differences in animal names (e.g., arnebeth in v.6) do not affect interpretation.
Reception History
The early church wrestled with these laws in light of Peter's vision (Acts 10). Justin Martyr in his Dialogue with Trypho (2nd century) argued that the dietary commands were given to keep Israel from idolatry, not because animals were inherently unclean. Augustine read the two marks allegorically: the divided hoof meant discernment between the two testaments, and chewing the cud meant meditation on Scripture. Calvin reports this tradition while cautioning against excessive allegory. Medieval Jewish commentators like Rashi emphasised that the laws purify Israel and are divine decrees not fully knowable by reason. In the Reformation, Luther and Calvin saw the ceremonial law as abrogated for Christians but still valuable as a mirror of sin and a call to holiness. Modern scholarship tends to focus on the social function of these laws in constructing Israel's identity in the ancient Near East.
Preaching This Verse
Three-point outline
- God's design for holiness touches everyday life. The dietary laws concern what Israel ate and touched. No area of life was outside God's claim on His people.
- God's instructions involve both spiritual and civil leadership. Moses the lawgiver and Aaron the high priest receive the word together. The church and the state each have a role in teaching and upholding God's standards.
- Partial obedience is not enough. An animal must have both a divided hoof and chew the cud. One mark without the other leaves it unclean. The same applies to whole-hearted discipleship.
Five-point outline
- Aaron is restored to his teaching office. After the solemn events of ch. 10, God includes Aaron in the revelation of purity laws (Barnes, Ellicott).
- Two marks of clean animals: division and rumination. These signs taught Israel to discern what God accepts.
- Four borderline cases show the law's precision. Camel, coney, hare, and pig each illustrate why partial criteria fall short.
- Contact with carcasses also defiles. Uncleanness spreads; the law guarded against casual exposure to death and impurity.
- The laws create a holy boundary around Israel. Eating became an act of covenant loyalty, not mere sustenance.
Illustration hooks
- The fine print in a contract. Many skim over details, but God puts four specific animals in bold to say that the details matter.
- A recipe that calls for two essential ingredients. You cannot skip the sugar or the flour. Both marks are required for cleanness.
- A family meal that sets a child apart. Jewish dietary rules made sitting down to dinner a daily reminder of belonging to God's people.
Questions your congregation is asking
- Why did God care what people ate? Doesn't He care about the heart more?
- Do these laws still apply to Christians? What about Peter's vision in Acts 10?
- What does “chewing the cud” mean here, and is it accurate for hares?
Leading a Discussion
This passage opens a section of Leviticus that defines how Israel could live out holiness in their daily environment. Small groups can explore both the historical meaning and the underlying principles about God's call to be distinct.
Discussion questions
- What strikes you about the way God addresses both Moses and Aaron in v.1? Why do you think that detail is recorded?
- What two tests does God give for clean land animals, and why might He have chosen those physical signs to represent spiritual truths?
- Look at the four animals named in vv.4-7. Each has only one of the two marks. What might that say about partial obedience in your own life?
- Verse 8 forbids not only eating but also touching the carcasses. What does this double prohibition teach about the seriousness of impurity?
- How do these food laws serve Israel's identity as a holy people? (Consider verses like Lev 11:44-45 in context.)
- The New Testament records a shift: see Mark 7:18-19 and Acts 10:9-15. How do you reconcile these with Leviticus 11? What principle remains constant?
- What is one way you can practice deliberate holiness in an area of daily life (like eating, time, relationships) as a response to God's call?
Word Study
The key original-language words in this verse. Select any word for its full lexicon entry — meaning, every occurrence in Scripture, and related words.
Cross-References
Source: Treasury of Scripture Knowledge (TSK, public domain)
| Leviticus 11:9 | “‘You may eat of all these that are in the waters: whatever has fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, that you may eat. |
| Leviticus 11:11 | and you shall detest them. You shall not eat of their meat, and you shall detest their carcasses. |
| Leviticus 11:13 | “‘You shall detest these among the birds; they shall not be eaten because they are an abomination: the eagle, the vulture, the black vulture, |
| Leviticus 11:21 | Yet you may eat these: of all winged creeping things that go on all fours, which have long, jointed legs for hopping on the earth. |
| Leviticus 11:29 | “‘These are they which are unclean to you among the creeping things that creep on the earth: the weasel, the rat, any kind of great lizard, |
| Leviticus 11:34 | All food which may be eaten which is soaked in water shall be unclean. All drink that may be drunk in every such vessel shall be unclean. |
| Leviticus 11:39 | “‘If any animal of which you may eat dies, he who touches its carcass shall be unclean until the evening. |
| Leviticus 11:41 | “‘Every creeping thing that creeps on the earth is an abomination. It shall not be eaten. |
Interlinear and lexical data from STEPBible (CC BY 4.0). Cross-reference data from OpenBible.info (CC BY 4.0). Commentaries are public domain.
For personal reflection
Read the devotional page — prayer, application, and "for families"
What the Commentators Say
10 public-domain commentaries, condensed into plain language.
Adam Clarke's Commentary Methodist/Wesleyan 1826
Clarke provides a detailed physiological explanation of what it means for an animal to chew the cud, describing the four stomachs of the ox and the process of rumination. He then identifies the shaphan (coney) and arnebeth (hare) as distinct creatures, not modern rabbits, and notes the swine's gluttonous, filthy nature, which he links to pagan worship and poor health in hot climates.
Barnes' Notes on the Bible Protestant 1832
Barnes clarifies that the hyrax, called “coney” in old English, was not actually a ruminant; it only appeared to chew the cud by moving its jaws while resting. He notes that scientific discovery later classified it as a pachyderm related to the rhinoceros, not a rodent.
Calvin's Commentaries Reformed 1564
Calvin reads the cloven hoof and chewing cud as symbols of spiritual discernment and serious meditation on Scripture, rejecting extravagant allegories that led to fanciful interpretations. He insists God demands complete purity, not partial, and notes swine's flesh was a particular test of Jewish obedience under persecution.
Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges Anglican 1880
The commentary notes that the phrase "all fowls that creep" in the King James Version obscures the fact that these are flying insects. The description of these insects as going on "all four" is popular, not scientific, since they actually have six feet.
Gill's Exposition of the Bible Baptist 1748
Gill argues that the dietary laws in Leviticus 11 were given primarily for Israel's physical health, to protect them from diseases like leprosy, and are not binding on Christians today. He points out that Gentiles were given no such restrictions, and that Paul later declared every creature of God good if received with thanksgiving.
Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Commentary Protestant 1871
JFB sees the dietary laws as serving a double purpose: their primary aim was to keep Israel separate from other nations and prevent assimilation, while health considerations also played a role. He notes that the physical traits of allowed animals, like chewing the cud and parted hoofs, aid in purifying the flesh, making it safer for food.
Keil & Delitzsch OT Commentary Protestant 1876
Keil-Delitzsch trace the clean and unclean animal laws to sin's penetration of the material world. They argue that as sin spread from humanity to all creation, many animal forms now bear the image of sin and death, constantly reminding people of the fall. These food regulations guard living fellowship with the Holy One.
Lange's Commentary Reformed 1857
Lange reads the clean and unclean animal distinctions as directly tied to sacrifice. The cloven hoof marks the slow, domesticated animal, and rumination marks the quiet, plant-eating animal,
Matthew Henry's Commentary Reformed/Presbyterian 1710
Henry notes that God addressed both Moses and Aaron as joint commissioners because priests were required to teach the people the difference between clean and unclean. He also observes that the unrestricted permission to eat meat given after the flood was now limited to Israel alone.
Wesley's Explanatory Notes Methodist/Wesleyan 1754
Wesley sees the dietary laws as purposeful training in self-denial and discernment. He notes the requirement that clean beasts both chew the cud and have cloven hooves symbolises two duties: distinguishing good from evil and meditating on God's word. The ultimate reason, he insists, is simply the lawgiver's will.