Joshua 9:3-14 · Bible study
Joshua 9:3-14 Commentary: The Gibeonite Deception
Hebrew · 11 what the commentators say
Meaning in one sentence
Why did the powerful Gibeonites deceive Israel instead of fight? Explore their motives, Israel's failure to seek God, and the lasting covenant.
Research Summary
- Meaning: The Gibeonites, fearing destruction, deceive Israel into a covenant; Israel fails to consult God and makes a binding treaty with their enemies.
- Key words: ‘ormah (cunning, H6195), karat berit (cut a covenant, H3772+H1285), sha’al pi Yahweh (ask the mouth of Yahweh, H7592+H6310+H3068).
- Main debate: Was the fraudulent covenant valid? Calvin argues it was null; others note that the oath sworn by Yahweh’s name was later honored as binding (Joshua 9:18-19).
- Theological theme: Human cunning versus divine guidance: God’s sovereignty works even through deception and failure, and oaths made in his name carry lasting weight.
- Best use: A caution against making major decisions without prayer, and a reminder that God can redeem our mistakes while still holding us to our commitments.
Translation Comparison
BSB Berean Standard Bible 2020
3But the people of Gibeon, having heard what Joshua had done to Jericho and Ai,
4acted deceptively and set out as envoys, carrying on their donkeys worn-out sacks and old wineskins, cracked and mended.
5They put worn, patched sandals on their feet and threadbare clothing on their bodies, and their whole supply of bread was dry and moldy.
6They went to Joshua in the camp at Gilgal and said to him and the men of Israel, “We have come from a distant land; please make a treaty with us.”
7But the men of Israel said to the Hivites, “Perhaps you dwell near us. How can we make a treaty with you?”
8“We are your servants,” they said to Joshua. Then Joshua asked them, “Who are you and where have you come from?”
9“Your servants have come from a very distant land,” they replied, “because of the fame of the LORD your God. For we have heard the reports about Him: all that He did in Egypt,
10and all that He did to the two kings of the Amorites beyond the Jordan—Sihon king of Heshbon and Og king of Bashan, who reigned in Ashtaroth.
11So the elders and inhabitants of our land told us, ‘Take provisions for your journey; go to meet them and say to them: We are your servants. Please make a treaty with us.’
12This bread of ours was warm when we packed it at home on the day we left to come to you. But take a look, it is now dry and moldy.
13These wineskins were new when we filled them, but look, they are cracked. And these clothes and sandals are worn out from our very long journey.”
14Then the men of Israel sampled their provisions, but did not seek the counsel of the LORD.
WEB World English Bible 2000
3But when the inhabitants of Gibeon heard what Joshua had done to Jericho and to Ai,
4they also resorted to a ruse, and went and made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks on their donkeys, and old, torn-up and bound up wineskins,
5and old and patched sandals on their feet, and wore old garments. All the bread of their food supply was dry and moldy.
6They went to Joshua at the camp at Gilgal, and said to him and to the men of Israel, “We have come from a far country. Now therefore make a covenant with us.”
7The men of Israel said to the Hivites, “What if you live among us? How could we make a covenant with you?”
8They said to Joshua, “We are your servants.” Joshua said to them, “Who are you? Where do you come from?”
9They said to him, “Your servants have come from a very far country because of the name of Yahweh your God; for we have heard of his fame, all that he did in Egypt,
10and all that he did to the two kings of the Amorites who were beyond the Jordan, to Sihon king of Heshbon and to Og king of Bashan, who was at Ashtaroth.
11Our elders and all the inhabitants of our country spoke to us, saying, ‘Take supplies in your hand for the journey, and go to meet them. Tell them, “We are your servants. Now make a covenant with us.”’
12This our bread we took hot for our supplies out of our houses on the day we went out to go to you; but now, behold, it is dry, and has become moldy.
13These wineskins, which we filled, were new; and behold, they are torn. These our garments and our sandals have become old because of the very long journey.”
14The men sampled their provisions, and didn’t ask counsel from Yahweh’s mouth.
KJV King James Version 1769
3And when the inhabitants of Gibeon heard what Joshua had done unto Jericho and to Ai,
4They did work wilily, and went and made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up;
5And old shoes and clouted upon their feet, and old garments upon them; and all the bread of their provision was dry and mouldy.
6And they went to Joshua unto the camp at Gilgal, and said unto him, and to the men of Israel, We be come from a far country: now therefore make ye a league with us.
7And the men of Israel said unto the Hivites, Peradventure ye dwell among us; and how shall we make a league with you?
8And they said unto Joshua, We are thy servants. And Joshua said unto them, Who are ye? and from whence come ye?
9And they said unto him, From a very far country thy servants are come because of the name of the Lord thy God: for we have heard the fame of him, and all that he did in Egypt,
10And all that he did to the two kings of the Amorites, that were beyond Jordan, to Sihon king of Heshbon, and to Og king of Bashan, which was at Ashtaroth.
11Wherefore our elders and all the inhabitants of our country spake to us, saying, Take victuals with you for the journey, and go to meet them, and say unto them, We are your servants: therefore now make ye a league with us.
12This our bread we took hot for our provision out of our houses on the day we came forth to go unto you; but now, behold, it is dry, and it is mouldy:
13And these bottles of wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be rent: and these our garments and our shoes are become old by reason of the very long journey.
14And the men took of their victuals, and asked not counsel at the mouth of the Lord.
ASV American Standard Version 1901
3But when the inhabitants of Gibeon heard what Joshua had done unto Jericho and to Ai,
4they also did work wilily, and went and made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine-skins, old and rent and bound up,
5and old and patched shoes upon their feet, and old garments upon them; and all the bread of their provision was dry and was become mouldy.
6And they went to Joshua unto the camp at Gilgal, and said unto him, and to the men of Israel, We are come from a far country: now therefore make ye a covenant with us.
7And the men of Israel said unto the Hivites, Peradventure ye dwell among us; and how shall we make a covenant with you?
8And they said unto Joshua, We are thy servants. And Joshua said unto them, Who are ye? and from whence come ye?
9And they said unto him, From a very far country thy servants are come because of the name of Jehovah thy God: for we have heard the fame of him, and all that he did in Egypt,
10and all that he did to the two kings of the Amorites, that were beyond the Jordan, to Sihon king of Heshbon, and to Og king of Bashan, who was at Ashtaroth.
11And our elders and all the inhabitants of our country spake to us, saying, Take provision in your hand for the journey, and go to meet them, and say unto them, We are your servants: and now make ye a covenant with us.
12This our bread we took hot for our provision out of our houses on the day we came forth to go unto you; but now, behold, it is dry, and is become mouldy:
13and these wine-skins, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they are rent: and these our garments and our shoes are become old by reason of the very long journey.
14And the men took of their provision, and asked not counsel at the mouth of Jehovah.
YLT Young's Literal Translation 1898
3And the inhabitants of Gibeon have heard that which Joshua hath done to Jericho and to Ai,
4and they work, even they, with subtilty, and go, and feign to be ambassadors, and take old sacks for their asses, and wine-bottles, old, and rent, and bound up,
5and sandals, old and patched, on their feet, and old garments upon them, and all the bread of their provision is dry--it was crumbs.
6And they go unto Joshua, unto the camp at Gilgal, and say unto him, and unto the men of Israel, `From a land far off we have come, and now, make with us a covenant;'
7and the men of Israel say unto the Hivite, `It may be in our midst ye are dwelling, and how do we make with thee a covenant?'
8and they say unto Joshua, `Thy servants we are .' And Joshua saith unto them, `Who are ye? and whence come ye?'
9And they say unto him, `From a land very far off have thy servants come, for the name of Jehovah thy God, for we have heard His fame, and all that He hath done in Egypt,
10and all that He hath done to the two kings of the Amorite who are beyond the Jordan, to Sihon king of Heshbon, and to Og king of Bashan, who is in Ashtaroth.
11`And our elders, and all the inhabitants of our land speak unto us, saying, Take in your hand provision for the way, and go to meet them, and ye have said unto them, Your servants we are , and now, make with us a covenant;
12this our bread--hot we provided ourselves with it out of our houses, on the day of our coming out to go unto you, and now, lo, it is dry, and hath been crumbs;
13and these are the wine-bottles which we filled, new, and lo, they have rent; and these, our garments and our sandals, have become old, from the exceeding greatness of the way.'
14And the men take of their provision, and the mouth of Jehovah have not asked;
Darby Darby Bible 1890
3And when the inhabitants of Gibeon heard what Joshua had done to Jericho and to Ai,
4then they also acted with craft, and they went prepared as on a journey, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine-flasks, old and rent and tied up;
5and old and patched sandals upon their feet, and old garments upon them; and all the bread of their provision was dry [and] mouldy.
6And they went to Joshua unto the camp at Gilgal, and said to him, and to the men of Israel, From a far country are we come; and now make a covenant with us.
7And the men of Israel said to the Hivite, Perhaps thou dwellest in the midst of us, and how should I make a covenant with thee?
8And they said unto Joshua, We are thy servants. And Joshua said to them, Who are ye? and from whence come ye?
9And they said to him, From a very far country are thy servants come, because of the name of Jehovah thy God; for we have heard the fame of him, and all that he did in Egypt,
10and all that he did to the two kings of the Amorites that were beyond Jordan, to Sihon the king of Heshbon, and to Og the king of Bashan, who was at Ashtaroth.
11And our elders and all the inhabitants of our country spoke to us, saying, Take victuals in your hand for the way, and go to meet them, and say to them, We are your servants, and now make a covenant with us.
12This our bread we took warm for our provision out of our houses on the day we came forth to go unto you; and now, behold, it is dry, and is become mouldy.
13And these flasks of wine which we filled new, behold, they are rent; and these our garments and our sandals are become old by reason of the very long journey.
14And the men took of their victuals, but they did not inquire at the mouth of Jehovah.
Douay-Rheims Douay-Rheims Bible 1899
3But they that dwelt in Gabaon, hearing all that Joshua had done to Jericho and Hai:
4Cunningly devising took for themselves provisions, laying old sacks upon their asses, and wine bottles rent and sewed up again,
5And very old shoes, which for a show of age were clouted with patches, and old garments upon them: the loaves also, which they carried for provisions by the way, were hard, and broken into pieces:
6And they went to Joshua, who then abode in the camp at Galgal, and said to him, and to all Israel with him: We are come from a far country, desiring to make peace with you. And the children of Israel answered them, and said:
7Perhaps you dwell in the land which falls to our lot; if so, we can make no league with you.
8But they said to Joshua: We are thy servants. Joshua said to them: Who are you? and whence came you?
9They answered: From a very far country thy servants are come in the name of the Lord thy God. For we have heard the fame of his power, all the things that he did in Egypt.
10And to the two kings of the Amorrhites, that were beyond the Jordan, Sehon, king of Hesebon, and Og, king of Basan, that was in Astaroth:
11And our ancients, and all the inhabitants of our country, said to us: Take with you victuals for a long way, and go meet them, and say: We are your servants, make ye a league with us.
12Behold, these loaves we took hot, when we set out from our houses to come to you, now they are become dry, and broken in pieces by being exceeding old.
13These bottles of wine when we filled them were new, now they are rent and burst. These garments we have on, and the shoes we have on our feet, by reason of the very long journey, are worn out, and almost consumed.
14They took therefore of their victuals, and consulted not the mouth of the Lord.
Verse in Context
Original Language (Biblical Hebrew)
Old Testament · Biblical Hebrew · Joshua 9:3
Source: STEPBible TAGNT/TEHB (CC-BY 4.0). Click or tap a morphology code to see the full parsing.
Scholars' Consensus
The Gibeonites, though a mighty city (Joshua 10:2), chose to deceive rather than join the Canaanite coalition because they feared Yahweh’s power demonstrated at Jericho and Ai. Commentators across traditions agree on this core motivation. Calvin argues that the covenant was null in strict law due to fraud, yet God turned it to Israel’s advantage. Barnes and Keil stress that Israel’s leaders, after initial suspicion, were swayed by the visible stage props, old sacks, moldy bread, worn sandals, and failed to ask counsel from the mouth of the Lord (v.14). The verb sha’al (H7592) here means consulting God’s oracle, almost certainly the Urim and Thummim. All agree that the blame falls not on making a treaty with foreigners, but on doing so without seeking divine guidance. The Gibeonites’ deception succeeded, but the oath sworn in Yahweh’s name later bound Israel for generations (cf. II Samuel 21:1-2).
How settled is the interpretation?
Interpretive difficulty: Medium
Main views:
- Fraud invalidates the covenant: Calvin argues the covenant was null from the start because it was based on lies; Israel was not obligated to keep it.
- Oath binds despite fraud: The leaders swore by Yahweh (v.15) and later refused to break the oath (v.18-19), supported by the severe consequences for Saul’s breach in II Samuel 21.
- Mixed view: binding yet flawed: The covenant was valid in law but Israel sinned in making it; God later used the Gibeonites for his purposes while holding Israel accountable for the oath (Matthew Henry, Keil).
What is clear: Israel’s leaders failed to seek God’s direction before acting, and the Gibeonites deceived them out of fear for their lives.
What Scholars Agree and Debate
| Topic | Agreed | Debated |
|---|---|---|
| Deception of the Gibeonites | The Gibeonites deliberately misrepresented their origin to save their lives. They acted out of fear of Yahweh’s power, not out of genuine faith. | Some interpret their action as justified self-preservation in war; others emphasize that the lie itself, especially using Yahweh’s name, was sinful and brought consequences on their descendants (Joshua 9:23). |
| Israel’s failure to seek counsel | Israel’s leaders sinned by not consulting the Lord before making the covenant. The text deliberately emphasizes this omission (v.14). | Whether the sin was primarily negligence or willful disobedience is debated. Matthew Henry calls it “a culpable oversight”; Calvin sees it as evidence of credulity and lack of reverence. |
| Binding nature of the covenant | The oath was made in the name of Yahweh, the God of Israel, and the leaders refused to break it later even when the congregation murmured (v.18-19). | Calvin argues the covenant was null because it was obtained by fraud. Most other commentators (Barnes, Keil, Matthew Henry) hold that the oath, once sworn before God, could not be revoked, even if it was based on deception. The later history (II Samuel 21) shows severe consequences for violating it. |
Historical & Cultural Context
Gibeon, located about six miles northwest of Jerusalem, was the capital of a Hivite republic that included Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath Jearim (Joshua 9:17). It was a “great city, as one of the royal cities, and greater than Ai” (Joshua 10:2). When the Canaanite kings formed a coalition to fight Israel “with one accord” (v.1-2), Gibeon chose a different path. The Gibeonites knew that Israel had been commanded to destroy the inhabitants of Canaan (Deuteronomy 20:16-18). Their only hope was to pretend they came from a distant land, since Israel was permitted to make peace with far-off peoples.
The props they used, old sacks, cracked wineskins tied up, patched sandals, threadbare clothing, dry and moldy bread, were standard gear for long-distance travelers in the ancient Near East. Wineskins were common for carrying water and wine; when old they cracked and had to be bound. Bread that kept for journeys was often hard and could become moldy over time (note niqqud H5350, “crumbs” or “brittle pieces”). The camp at Gilgal, east of Jericho, was Israel’s base camp after crossing the Jordan (Joshua 5:10).
The covenant-making formula “cut a covenant” (karat berit, v.6 and v.15) likely involved sacrificing an animal, as Clarke notes: “cut, or divide, the covenant sacrifice with us.” The failure “to ask the mouth of Yahweh” (v.14) refers to consulting the high priest’s breastpiece, the Urim and Thummim (Exodus 28:30; Numbers 27:21), which Joshua had at his disposal. The leaders of Israel tasted the provisions, a gesture of fellowship and examination, but bypassed God’s direction entirely.
Textual Notes
The consulted sources note no significant textual variants for Joshua 9:3-14. The passage is well preserved across manuscripts, with the main differences being minor spelling variations (e.g., singular vs. plural forms of “wineskin” in verse 4). These do not affect interpretation.
Reception History
Early church fathers such as Augustine wrestled with the ethics of the Gibeonites’ deception: could a lie be justified to save life? Augustine condemned it, though he noted that God used it for good. In the medieval period, the passage was cited in discussions of just war and the binding nature of oaths: if a treaty was made with an enemy in good faith, even if the enemy deceived, the oath held. Reformation commentators (Luther, Calvin, the Geneva Bible) emphasized Israel’s failure to consult God, making the text a warning against reliance on human reason. Later evangelical preachers have used the story to illustrate the subtlety of sin and the importance of prayer before decision-making. The Gibeonites themselves become a type of the “fearful outsider” who finds refuge, however imperfectly, under Israel’s covenant.
Preaching This Verse
Three-Point Outline
- The Fear That Drives Deception, The Gibeonites heard what Yahweh had done and chose human cunning over trust or war. Their fear was understandable, but their solution was falsehood.
- The Evidence That Deceives, Israel’s leaders looked at the worn-out sacks and moldy bread and concluded the story was true. Physical evidence is no substitute for spiritual guidance.
- The Counsel That Is Neglected, The phrase “did not ask counsel from Yahweh’s mouth” (v.14) stands as the pivot of the passage. The sin is not the treaty but the failure to consult God first.
Five-Point Outline
- Hearing the News (v.3), Gibeon heard of Jericho and Ai. News about God’s power can either drive us to repentance or to scheming.
- Crafting the Ruse (v.4-5), Every detail was calculated to support the lie. Deception takes work; so does truthfulness.
- Making the Appeal (v.6-13), The Gibeonites invoked Yahweh’s name and listed his deeds, but as a cover, not a confession. Sincere words can come from insincere hearts.
- Suspecting but Not Searching (v.7,14), Israel’s men raised the right question (“Perhaps you dwell among us?”) but then settled for visible proof. Good instincts need follow-through.
- The Cost of Not Seeking God (v.14-15), The covenant was made, and three days later the truth came out. Israel could not break their oath (v.18-19). Decisions made without prayer often leave long shadows.
Illustration Hooks
- A student who cheats on an entrance exam because they fear failing, only to live with the anxiety of exposure for years.
- A home buyer who trusts a seller’s cosmetic fixes and skips the professional inspection, then discovers costly hidden damage.
- A political candidate who uses old photos and vague promises to appear trustworthy, winning office but later facing scandal.
Questions Your Congregation Is Asking
- How could Joshua and the elders be so easily fooled? What should they have done differently?
- Did the Gibeonites really believe in Yahweh, or was it all pretence? Was their deception ever punished?
- If I have made a promise based on incomplete information, am I still bound to keep it?
Leading a Discussion
This narrative reveals how quickly good people can be swept into a bad decision when they trust their eyes more than God. The Gibeonites’ fear is real; Israel’s negligence is real. Both invite us to examine the gap between what we know about God and how we actually makes choices.
Discussion Questions
- What do the Gibeonites’ words in verses 9-10 reveal about what they knew of Yahweh? Did that knowledge lead them to faith or just to self-protection?
- Why did Israel’s men voice suspicion in verse 7 but then fail to pursue it? What pressures might cause us to drop a necessary investigation?
- The text says the men “took of their victuals” and “did not ask counsel from Yahweh’s mouth.” What does this contrast suggest about where true discernment comes from?
- If Joshua had prayed before making the covenant, what might God have told him? How does that change how you approach your own decisions this week?
- In what situations are we most tempted to rely on visible “proof” instead of seeking God? Give an example from your own experience.
- The Gibeonites’ deception bought them safety, but at the cost of living under a curse as “woodcutters and water carriers” (v.21). Is survival worth any price? What does that trade-off look like today?
- How does the binding nature of the oath (cf. II Samuel 21:1-2) speak to the weight of our promises, even ones made in error?
Word Study
The key original-language words in this verse. Select any word for its full lexicon entry — meaning, every occurrence in Scripture, and related words.
Cross-References
Source: Treasury of Scripture Knowledge (TSK, public domain)
| Joshua 6:1 | Now Jericho was tightly shut up because of the children of Israel. No one went out, and no one came in. |
| Joshua 6:27 | So Yahweh was with Joshua; and his fame was in all the land. |
| Joshua 8:1 | Yahweh said to Joshua, “Don’t be afraid, and don’t be dismayed. Take all the warriors with you, and arise, go up to Ai. Behold, I have given into your hand the king of Ai, with his people, his city, and his land. |
| Joshua 8:35 | There was not a word of all that Moses commanded which Joshua didn’t read before all the assembly of Israel, with the women, the little ones, and the foreigners who were among them. |
| Joshua 9:17 | The children of Israel traveled and came to their cities on the third day. Now their cities were Gibeon, Chephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath Jearim. |
| Joshua 10:2 | they were very afraid, because Gibeon was a great city, as one of the royal cities, and because it was greater than Ai, and all its men were mighty. |
| II Samuel 21:1 | There was a famine in the days of David for three years, year after year; and David sought the face of Yahweh. Yahweh said, “It is for Saul, and for his bloody house, because he put the Gibeonites to death.” |
| II Samuel 21:2 | The king called the Gibeonites and said to them (now the Gibeonites were not of the children of Israel, but of the remnant of the Amorites, and the children of Israel had sworn to them; and Saul sought to kill them in his zeal for the children of Israel and Judah); |
Interlinear and lexical data from STEPBible (CC BY 4.0). Cross-reference data from OpenBible.info (CC BY 4.0). Commentaries are public domain.
For personal reflection
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What the Commentators Say
11 public-domain commentaries, condensed into plain language.
Adam Clarke's Commentary Methodist/Wesleyan 1826
Clarke notes that the Gibeonites clearly lied, but the Bible does not commend them for it. Their deceit might have succeeded for a time, but honesty would have served them better, and truth never wears out. The Israelites' real error was that they made the covenant without consulting the Lord.
Barnes' Notes on the Bible Protestant 1832
Barnes observes that the "also" in "they also did work wilily" hints the Gibeonites matched Israel's own craftiness at Ai with craft of their own. He notes the elders accepted their false story immediately instead of seeking God's direction by Urim and Thummim.
Calvin's Commentaries Reformed 1564
Calvin argues the treaty with Gibeon was legally void from the start because it rested on fraud, not truth. Joshua and the elders compounded the error by rashly swearing an oath without first seeking God’s direction through the priest, a failure he judges far more severely than the Gibeonites’ deception.
Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges Anglican 1880
The Cambridge Bible notes the minute details of the Gibeonites’ staged props—old sacks, clouted sandals, mouldy bread—as calculated evidence meant to suggest an impossibly long journey. The elders compounded their failure by eating with the envoys, a custom that sealed friendship, without consulting the Lord through the sacred oracle.
Geneva Bible Notes Reformed 1599
The Geneva Notes highlight that the Israelites' mistake was not consulting the Lord before agreeing to the Gibeonites' peace treaty. They accepted the fabricated story about old bread and wine without seeking God's guidance, which led to their being deceived.
Gill's Exposition of the Bible Baptist 1748
Gill highlights that the Gibeonites acted cunningly in a different way than the other Canaanite nations: instead of forming alliances to resist Israel, they deceived Israel into making a peace treaty. He also notes that the Israelites, though suspicious, failed to ask the Lord about the matter, which would have exposed the fraud.
Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Commentary Protestant 1871
Jamieson, Fausset and Brown note that Israel's failure was not making the covenant itself but neglecting to consult God through the high priest's Urim and Thummim. They observe that had the Israelites asked, God might have permitted an alliance with Gibeonites who renounced idolatry, since no later blame fell on the covenant, only on its violation.
Keil & Delitzsch OT Commentary Protestant 1876
Keil-Delitzsch emphasizes that Israel's critical error was not the treaty itself but their failure to "ask the mouth of the Lord." Instead of seeking divine guidance through the high priest, they trusted only outward appearances, tasting the mouldy bread as proof of a distant journey.
Lange's Commentary Reformed 1857
Lange emphasizes that the Israelite princes kept their oath to the Gibeonites not because they were legally bound after the deception was uncovered, but out of reverence for God's name. He presents this conscientious adherence, even against popular murmuring, as a model of the sanctity of an oath sworn in God's name.
Matthew Henry's Commentary Reformed/Presbyterian 1710
Henry notes that the Gibeonites' deception came from fear. They had heard what God did for Israel and knew they could not win by war, so they resorted to trickery. But the real failure was Israel's: they looked at the evidence but did not ask the Lord for guidance.
Wesley's Explanatory Notes Methodist/Wesleyan 1754
Wesley stresses that Joshua and the leaders acted rashly by examining the Gibeonites' provisions but never consulting the Lord. Their failure to seek God's direction in a weighty matter led to a hasty treaty. The lesson is that every important decision requires asking counsel from God through prayer and his word.